Lyceum & Book Club - Week 16 - Hand Out - 1600s

1600s - Age of Religious Wars and Absolutism

Age of Science

Scientific Revolution begins; scientific method is developed. Galileo proves solar-centred universe; Isaac Newton studies gravity; William Harvey studies human circulation; microscope is invented. the elaborate Palais de Versailles in ornate baroque style is built. architectural wonder of the world.

Age of Absolutism, epitomized by Louis XIV, “Sun King”

Peter the Great of Russia

Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden

1600 - Giordano Bruno burned at the stake in Rome.

British East India Company is established and sets up trading posts in India.

1603 - Elizabeth I, Queen of England, dies and with her the Tudor line. Her successor is James I of the House of Stuart, who ruled until 1625.

1604 - New star, fully described by Kepler in De Stella nova (1606)

1605 - Frances Bacon (1561 - 1626) publishes “Two Books of Francis Bacon, of the Proficiencie and Advancemento of Learning, Divine and Human.”

1607 - Foundation of Virginia by the English

1608 - Foundation of Quebec by the French

1609 - Kepler publishes “The New Astronomy”, in which he introduces elliptical astronomy.

1610 - Henry IV, King of France, is murdered. He is succeeded by his son, Louis XIII (d. 1643), during whose reign Cardinal Richelieu ruled France de facto.

France, led by Cardinal Richelieu, chief minister for Louis XIII, desired to reduce the power of Austria by funding Austria's enemies. Although a high member of the hierarchy of the Catholic Church, Richelieu can be described as a politique, as he put national interest ahead of his religion. Indeed, Richelieu openly funded Protestant groups in his fight against the Habsburgs.

1611 - King James Bible, a translation for the Church of England, is published.

1612 - Foundation of New York by the Dutch.

1618 -1648 - Beginning of the Thirty Years' War, which devastates much of the German region.

From wiki:

The Schmalkaldic Wars and the Peace of Augsburg started in the 1540s and ended in 1555 created a number of issues for Charles V of Habsburg. The debate over what religion German states could adopt had not been resolved, as the Peace of Augsburg provided for the states' princes to adopt either Catholicism or Lutheranism, but not Calvinism. The issue of the German princes' power and sovereignty was also at bay, as the princes increasingly desired more power. Finally, the princes had been seizing Church land, angering Charles V.

Protestant Bohemians rebelled for religious freedom and independence from Habsburg rule. The Defenestration of Prague, in which rebels threw two of the Holy Roman Emperor's, Ferdinand II, Catholic officials from a castle window, initiated the war in 1618. After ruthless retaliation by Ferdinand, Bohemia was completely converted to Catholicism and defeated.

King Christian of Denmark supported north German Protestants. Catholic general Albert Wallenstein was hired to defeat Protestant forces and restore Catholic land lost. In the Siege of Madgeburg, Wallenstein's mercenary force, out of control, massacred the entire town of Madgeburg, including both Protestants and Catholics. Again, Austria is victorious, and Denmark is relatively easily defeated.

Swedish King Gustavus Adolphus, devout Lutheran, came to Germany's aid. Austria ultimately defeated Sweden, and it looked like peace was likely. The Edict of Restitution was thus withdrawn.

Though a Catholic state, France had felt threatened by the strengthened Habsburg Empire, and joined the war in 1635 on the side of the Protestants, thus ending the strictly religious character of the war. A combined French/Swedish alliance triumphed over Habsburg forces, while the Dutch, also allied to France, finally won their formal independence from Spain. In 1648, with all sides exhausted, a final series of peace treaties were prepared.

The Treaty of Westphalia ended the last major religious war in Europe.

The war was essentially a fight between the two powers to determine which would become the main power in Europe.

1620 - Francis Bacon publishes his New Organum.

1625 - Beginning of the reign of Charles I of England.

1627 - Francis Bacon's New Atlantis is published posthumously.

1637 - René Descartes (1596-1650) publishes his Discourse on Method.

1642 - Death of Galileo.

Birth of Isaac Newton (1642-1727).

Beginning of civil war in England (ended 1649).

English begin to question the divine right of monarchy.

From wiki:

The war pitted supporters of the Parliament (Parliamentarians or “Roundheads”), led by Oliver of Cromwell, against supporters of the king (Royalists or "Cavaliers"), and at stake were both political power and control of English economics.

Parliament found more support among the the merchant class, Puritans and prosperous regions - those who benefited by the new order of things and had the wherewithal to advance and wanted to keep profits for themselves rather than the State/King and those who wanted to strip down the old establishment institutes, including the established religious institutes, while the king found more support among the nobility, Anglicans and poorer regions - those who benefited from the status quo and those who would be left behind (the poor/ poorer regions)in the new order of things by lack of advantages/ resources that the new middle class merchant families & wealthier regions had in their favor.

After losing the first phase of the war, Charles I was captured in 1646. The Parliamentarians had hoped to keep him on the throne with his powers reduced, but Charles resisted making a compromise and instead tried to exploit their growing religious divisions.

Charles formed an alliance with a faction of Scottish Presbytarians to retake the throne. This sparked a second civil war in 1648, in which they were defeated.

Other movements sprang up during this time, including Baptists, Quakers, levellers, diggers, seekers, and ranters, who equated the clergy with nobles.

1643 - 1715 - Louis XIV, the Sun King, rules as the last absolute monarch in France. He builds the elaborate Palais de Versailles in ornate baroque style. The agricultural peasant class in France suffers great poverty.

1644 - Descartes publishes Principles of Philosophy.

1648 - Peace of Westphalia, end of the Thirty Years' War.

From wiki:

Beneficiaries of the Treaty of Westphalia

• France, now the dominant power in Europe, surpassing Spain and Austria. France also got Alsace-Loraine and wins the Thirty Years' War, stopping German unity.

• Dutch and the House of Orange. Spain and the Holy Roman Empire finally recognized their independence, and for the next 60 years, were the leaders in trade, shipping, and a major economic powerhouse in Europe.

• Swiss. They earned independence from the Holy Roman Empire.

• Sweden. They now controlled the Baltic Sea and became the most powerful nation in the north.

• Prussia and the Hohenzollerns. This marked the start of Prussia's rise as a great military power.

• German princes. The princes now won sovereignty and could select Calvinism for their states.

• Protestants. The Peace of Westphalia marked the end of the Counter-Reformation and Calvinism was now tolerated.

Losers at Westphalia

• Spain and the Spanish Habsburgs. The Spanish lost colonies and territorial possessions, resulting in a loss in income.

• The Holy Roman Empire, Austria, and the Austrian Habsburg. 1648 marked the definite end of the Holy Roman emperor's power over the Holy Roman Empire, as the princes are now sovereign.

• Catholicism. The Peace of Westphalia marked the end of the enforced Counter-Reformation and thus the end of the church's supremacy and papal authority.

• German Unity. Germany was kept disunited and was divided into hundreds of individual, sovereign states governed by princes.

1649 - Charles I of England beheaded by Cromwell and the "Rump" Parliament, leaving the parliamentarian general Oliver Cromwell effectively in charge of England.

Charles’ sons, Charles and James, flee to France

From wiki:

Afterwards, Cromwell formed a new government called the Commonwealth, which lasted from 1649 until 1653. This government was a democratic republic. However, in 1653, Cromwell formed the Protectorate, which was effectively a military dictatorship. He created the New Model Army, a paid force of devoted Puritans. His reign involved very strict laws, including no playing cards nor dancing. He, like many English monarchs, found Parliament difficult to control, it was when he disbanded Parliament, the only English Constitution was written, "Instruments of Government.”

1652 - Holland (Netherlands) establishes a colony at the Cape of Good Hope, South Africa. They send Boers (“farmers”) to colonize the lands.

1660 - Restoration of the English Monarchy.

In 1658, Cromwell died leaving a political vacuum in his wake, so Parliament invited Charles I’s sons back from exile, resulting in the restoration of Charles II Stuart and thus the Stuart line to the throne.

From eh.net/encyclopedia:

The compromise struck during the Restoration was that Charles II would control his succession, that he would control his judiciary, and that he would have the power to collect traditional taxes. In exchange, Charles II would remain Protestant and the imposition of additional taxes would require Parliament’s approval.

But, in the French court of King Louis XIV, the sons had lived around an environment where the monarchy exercised absolute power uninhibited by parliament and they fully expected to duplicate the rule by “Divine Right of Kings” in England.

Foundation of the Royal Society of London.

1661 - Charles II (d. 1685) crowned king of England.

Tensions continued to rise between Parliament and the throne through both Charles II’s reign (1660 - 1685) and James II (1685 - 1688).

1665 - Fire of London

1666 - London Plague

1684 - Repeal of the Edict of Nantes in France by Louis XIV (1638 - 1715),the “Sun King”, leading to an exodus of Protestants from France.

1685 - James II of England

From eh.net:

On the religious front, the Catholic James upset his Anglican allies by threatening the preeminence of the Anglican Church. He also declared that his son and heir would be raised Catholic. On the military front, James expanded the standing army and promoted Catholic officers.

On the financial front, he attempted to subvert Parliament by packing it with his loyalists. With a packed Parliament, “the king and his ministers could have achieved practical and permanent independence by obtaining a larger revenue”.

By 1688, Tories, worried about the Church of England, and Whigs, worried about the independence of Parliament, agreed that they needed to unite against James II.

1687 - Isaac Newton publishes his “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy”

1689 - “Glorious Revolution” in England

After the “Glorious Revolution” of 1688, English Parliament passes the Declaration of Rights, making Parliament stronger and protecting the rights of the people.

From eh, net:

The solution(to James II gaining absolute power) became Mary Stuart and her husband, William of Orange. English factions invited Mary and William to seize the throne because the couple was Protestant and Mary was the daughter of James II. The situation, however, had additional drama because William was also the military commander of the Dutch Republic, and, in 1688, the Dutch were in a difficult military position. Holland was facing war with France (the Nine Years War, 1688-97), and the possibility was growing that James II would bring England into the war on the side of France. James was nearing open war with his son-in-law William.

For William and Holland, accepting the invitation and invading England was a bold gamble, but the success could turn England from a threat to an ally. William landed in England with a Dutch army on November 5, 1688. Defections in James II’s army followed before battle was joined, and William allowed James to flee to France. Parliament took the flight of James II as abdication and the co-reign of William III and Mary II officially replaced him on February 13, 1689. Although Mary had the claim to the throne as James II’s daughter, William demanded to be made King and Mary wanted William to have that power. Authority was simplified when Mary’s death in 1694 left William the sole monarch.

The deal struck between Parliament and the royal couple in 1688-89 was that Parliament would support the war against France, while William and Mary would accept new constraints on their authority. The new constitution reflected the relative weakness of William’s bargaining position more than any strength in Parliament’s position. Parliament feared the return of James, but William very much needed England’s willing support in the war against France because the costs would be extraordinary and William would be focused on military command instead of political wrangling.

By the end of the 1600s, the strongest nation in Europe was France, while both the English and the Dutch were rising in power and prominence.

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1700s - Age of Enlightenment

“Age of Enlightenment” in Europe: thinkers question the authority of religion, believe that reason and science can solve human problems.

1704 - Isaac Newton publishes his “Opticks”.