Lyceum & Book Club - Week 16 - Hand out - 1500s

1500s - the Age of Reformation

From wright.edu - Commoner's Life

The common people in the 16th and 17th centuries was largely rural and illiterate. But their world was not static. The expansion of trade and cities, and the rise of Protestantism introduced for some the opportunities of new wealth and independence.

On the other hand, for many commoners an already dangerous world was disrupted by more rapid economic fluctuations and the loss of traditional rights. There was also the disruption of religious discord and war.

Commoners had few resources in their efforts to understand and control their lives. Folklore and witchcraft trials are two examples of how illiterate peasants attempted to do so.

16th and 17th-century Economy

In the 1500s and 1600s almost 90% of Europeans lived on farms or small rural communities. Crop failure and disease was a constant threat to life.

In towns, occupations were organized by guilds and regulated by guild or town rules governing everything from who can make or trade what, to hours of business and prices to be charged.

The 1500s was a time of significant population growth, which contributed to the expansion of the cities. In general, prices rose while real wages fell, putting more in danger of serious poverty. Prices rose rapidly between 1500 and 1650, partly because of the demands of a growing population, and partly because of so much silver and gold flowing in from America.

In the countryside, rising populations and rising prices contributed to peasant uprisings in the 1500s. The greatest was in Germany in the wake of the Reformation. Peasants combined demands for religious and economic rights. They were afflicted by a loss of income, rising rents, and a loss of local rights to graze animals in common fields, or to forage and cut timber in common forests. Uprisings like this were inspired by loss, but also by hope, particularly the example of Luther's dramatic challenge to church authority. Why not also a new economic order?

We have noted that Luther himself did not support the peasants, and they were brutally suppressed. There were similar, though smaller, revolts in other European countries.

Family and Social Life

Rural communities were normally directed by local lords and clergy. The church was at the center of the common life, the site of all important ceremonies, from baptisms, weddings, holiday observances and burials. That is not to say that peasants were always theologically correct. Popular traditions blended with Christian orthodoxy to create a hybrid view of the world. Virtually everyone believed in magic.

The Christian clergy saw witches and sorcerers as competitors for their authority to assure blessings, healing and good fortune. This is one factor that contributed to the attack on witches in the 16th and 17th centuries.

Witchcraft Craze

In these centuries there were tens of thousands of witchcraft trials throughout Europe. The concern about witchcraft was a sign of troubled times. Our readings indicate many of the key aspects witchcraft trials. Firstly, is the fact that most accused of witchcraft were women, especially older women, and/or women who were widows or otherwise independent from male control. This class of women were both vulnerable and suspect because they are on the social fringes of the community.

It comes as no surprise that witchcraft trials were most common in places where the Reformation had caused religious divisions and fears of spiritual and social deviance. And trials were most common in places were the common people suffered most from wars and privations. When both of these fears and difficulties subsided in the later 1600s, the trials also dwindled to a rarity.

In some locations, especially in Germany, these fears of evil and discord within the community was directed at Jews rather than witches. There was a similar demand for expiation by mob justice. All the factors we describe concerning the fear of witchcraft can be applied in our understanding of the fear of Jews. What is so scary about this situation is that the fear and hatred of Jews did not subside forever in the 18th century, and was to return with disastrous virulence in more recent times.

The life of commoners in the 16th and 17th centuries were undergoing great changes, both for good and ill. Improvements in agriculture, population growth, the growth of trade and cities all created both opportunities and stress. Collectively, common people had few means at their disposal to address their problems. One was revolt, another was attacks on witches and Jews.

———————————-

The Reformation - history.com

The Protestant Reformation was the 16th-century religious, political, intellectual and cultural upheaval that splintered Catholic Europe, setting in place the structures and beliefs that would define the continent in the modern era.

In northern and central Europe, reformers like Martin Luther, John Calvin and Henry VIII challenged papal authority and questioned the Catholic Church’s ability to define Christian practice. They argued for a religious and political redistribution of power into the hands of Bible- and pamphlet-reading pastors and princes. The disruption triggered wars, persecutions and the so-called Counter-Reformation, the Catholic Church’s delayed but forceful response to the Protestants.

The key ideas of the Reformation—a call to purify the church and a belief that the Bible, not tradition, should be the sole source of spiritual authority—were not themselves novel. However, Luther and the other reformers became the first to skillfully use the power of the printing press to give their ideas a wide audience.

Along with the religious consequences of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation came deep and lasting political changes. Northern Europe’s new religious and political freedoms came at a great cost, with decades of rebellions, wars and bloody persecutions. The Thirty Years’ War alone may have cost Germany 40 percent of its population.

But the Reformation’s positive repercussions can be seen in the intellectual and cultural flourishing it inspired on all sides of the schism—in the strengthened universities of Europe, the Lutheran church music of J.S. Bach, the baroque altarpieces of Pieter Paul Rubens and even the capitalism of Dutch Calvinist merchants.

————————————————————————

1500’s - the Age of Reformation

1500 to 1648 is considered the period of the emergence of modern Europe & the rise of western civilization came into dominance.

It was a period of vigorous economic expansion along with population rise after two centuries of population decline or stagnation.

Austria slowly loses dominance to Spain

1500 - Birth of Charles V of Hapsburg, who became Lord of the Netherlands in 1515 / King of Spain in 1516 and was elected Holy Roman Emperor (German-speaking region / Austria) in 1519. He ruled most of Europe until his abdication in 1556.

1506 - St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome started / completed in 1626.

St. Peter's Church, started in Rome by Pope Julius II to replace Old St. Peter’s basilica built by Emperor Constantine, which had been neglected during the Avignon Papacy to the point it was in abject disrepair.

1509 - Henry VIII ascends to the throne of England. He rules until 1547.

Church of England becomes Anglican under Henry VIII

1517 - Martin Luther nails his 95 theses to the door of the castle church in Wittenberg, Germany, mainly in protest of the practice of indulgences, beginning the Protestant Reformation and Lutheranism

From National Geographic:

Luther's statements challenged the Catholic Church's role as intermediary between people and God, specifically when it came to the indulgence system, which in part allowed people to purchase a certificate of pardon for the punishment of their sins. Luther argued against the practice of buying or earning forgiveness, believing instead that salvation is a gift God gives to those who have faith.

Broadly speaking, most of the challenges to the Catholic Church revolved around the notion that individual believers should be less dependent on the Catholic Church, and its pope and priests, for spiritual guidance and salvation. Instead, Protestants believed people should be independent in their relationship with God, taking personal responsibility for their faith and referring directly to the Bible, the Christian holy book, for spiritual wisdom.

From wiki:

During this period of European history, the Catholic Church, which had become rich and powerful, came under scrutiny. For over a thousand years the Christian religion had bound European states together despite differences in language and customs. Its all-pervading power affected everyone from king to commoner.

One of the main Christian tenets is that wealth should be used to alleviate suffering and poverty and that the monetary funds of the church are there specifically for that reason. The central authority of the church had been in Rome for over a thousand years and this concentration of power and money led many to question whether this tenet was being met.

In many respects, the northern European countries felt as though the Papal power was now a Papal business.

Whether (the Reformation movement championed by Northern European leaders’) aim was to return the church to Christ's message or simply a politically motivated and regional response to the concentration of Papal wealth and power is still a question that divides people.

Age of Exploration, Spain, Portugal and other European Powers

1517 - Leipzig Debate

Luther debates Johann Eck (1486 - 1543) arguing that sola scripture (scripture alone) is the basis for Christian faith and doctrine. (But whose translation and interpretation?)

1519 - Charles I of Spain is chosen Holy Roman Emperor Charles V.

1519 - Swiss Reformation

Reformation spreads to Switzerland.

Ulrich Zwingli became a forceful leader of the Reformation in Switzerland, which paralleled Luther’s, but went further on some key points, going further than Martin Luther in his beliefs that differed from the Catholic Church or Lutheranism. Clashed with the Anabaptists, which led to their persecution. Some have suggested he turned Zurich into a theocracy. In 1531, his alliance of Reformed Swiss canons, tried to apply a blockade of food going into the Swiss canons that had remained Catholic, and those canons attacked in response. Zwingli died on the battlefield.

1520 - Cortez conquers Mexico.

Luther publishes three monumental works:

“To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation”

“On the Babylonian Captivity of the Christian Faith”

“On the Freedom of a Christian”

In “To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation”, Luther outlines his proposed doctrine that basically states the Pope has no authority to claim his interpretation has any more validity than anyone else nor has he any authority to confirm what others have put forth as the true interpretation of the Bible - Luther called this core tenet,”The Priesthood of all believers”.

(Of course Luther also felt his interpretation of the Bible was the correct one and really did not mean that untutored peasants knew more about spiritual truth than he did, just that the Pope and Catholic Church hierarchy didn’t. This book and thesis was meant to appeal directly to the political agenda of Germanic princes in their fight against the authority of Charles V of Spain. Luther is not appealing to the secular leaders in Italy)

1521 - Suleiman I, the Magnificent, becomes Sultan of Turkey

Invades Hungary (1521)

Rhodes (1522)

attacks Austria (1529)

annexes Hungary (1541), Tripoli (1551)

makes peace with Persia (1553)

destroys Spanish fleet (1560) and dies (1566).

1521 - Diet of Worms

Luther appears at the Diet before Charles V, emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, to answer charges of heresy. He is given safe passage to and from the conference. At first he is hesitant to directly defy Charles when given an ultimatum, but he returns to steadfastly refuse to recant and is declared a heretic and formally excommunicated from the Catholic Church by Pope Leo X.

Frederick III, Elector of Saxony ensures that Luther is taken to the Wartburg Castle for his own safety where the Pope and Emperor can not get to him.

King Henry VIII of England writes the paper, “Assertio Septem Sacramentorum (Defense of the Seven Sacraments) in opposition to Luther. He is rewarded by Pope Leo X with the title, Fidei Defensor (Defender of the Faith).

Henry is not for individuals (commoners) going against authority and making decisions for themselves against what authority dictates as truth, so he is very much against this trend getting started.

1522 - German Bible

While at the Wartburg Castle, Luther translates the Latin bible into German and publishes his New Testament translation. (The Old Testament translation is published in 1534)

Of course, now this is his translation and interpretation put forth as the true interpretation.

1524 - German peasants, in part inspired by Luther’s empowering “priesthood in all believers” revolted against German princes’ authoritarian inequality of resources and laws (secular corruption by those who did not live up to their part of the social bargain between noble and commoner & funneled all of the resources to themselves at the expense of the peasants under their control). Luther sided with Germany’s princes, all for challenges & reform to authority and status quo that related to himself and his class, but not to the underclass.

1526 - English Bible

William Tyndale (1494-1536) publishes a translation of the New Testament in English.

1527 - Philip II of Spain is born (his father is Charles V of Spain.

From wiki:

Philip II, also known as Philip the Prudent, was King of Spain from 1556, King of Portugal from 1580, and King of Naples and Sicily from 1554 until his death in 1598. He was also jure uxoris King of England and Ireland from his marriage to Queen Mary I in 1554 until her death in 1558.

Troops of the Holy Roman Empire attack Rome, imprison Pope Clement VII

The end of the Italian Renaissance

1529 - Turks besiege Vienna.

Marlburg Colloquy

Luther meets with Swiss Reformer, Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) to discuss the issue of the Eucharist and how literal is the idea of the presence of Christ in the bread and wine. Zwingli goes further in his ideas from a traditional Catholic interpretation than even Luther and says the idea of Christ’s body being in the bread and wine is totally symbolic. They can not agree on a common “protestant” interpretation. Luther’s movement is going beyond his control.

1530 - Augsburg Confession

This was a composition written by Philip Melanchthon, another German reformer, for the assembly(Diet) of Augsburg, but based on Luther’s articles, (so a collaboration of statement of doctrine between the two) that outlined Luther’s theology and practice.

From wiki:

Luther did not conceal his dissatisfaction with its irenic tone. Indeed, some would criticize Melanchthon's conduct at the Diet as unbecoming of the principle he promoted, implying that faith in the truth of his cause should logically have inspired Melanchthon to a firmer and more dignified posture.Others point out that he had not sought the part of a political leader, suggesting that he seemed to lack the requisite energy and decision for such a role and may simply have been a lackluster judge of human nature.

1531 - Ulrich Zwingli is killed on the battlefield during the Battle of Kappel, in the conflict between Catholic and Protestant cantons of the Swiss confederacy.

1533 - Marriage between Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon is declared null and void by Thomas Crammer, Archbishop of Canterbury in defiance of the Catholic Church. Henry then married Anne Boleyn.

1534 - Luther’s German bible is published in its entirety with the publication of the Old Testament now.

Society of Jesus - Jesuit order

Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556) founds the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) order as part of the Catholic counter-reformation. Parts of Poland, Hungary and Germany are reconverted from Protestantism to Catholicism.

1535 - English Reformation begins as Henry VIII makes himself head of English Church after being excommunicated by Pope.

From National Geographic:

Henry VIII created and assumed authority over the Church of England, a sort of hybrid church that combined some Catholic doctrine and some Protestant ideals.

Sir Thomas More (1475-1535) is executed on the orders of Henry VIII as traitor for refusal to support the English Reformation and acknowledge the king’s ultimate religious authority.

1536 - Tyndale executed

William Tyndale is burnt at the stake for heresy in Antwerp.

From Brittanica:

Because of the influence of printing and a demand for Scriptures in the vernacular, William Tyndale began working on a New Testament translation directly from the Greek in 1523.

After church authorities in England prevented him from translating the Bible there, he went to Germany in 1524, receiving financial support from wealthy London merchants. Again under pressure, this time from the city authorities, Tyndale fled to Worms, where two more editions were published in 1525. The first copies were smuggled into England in 1526, where they were at once proscribed.

Tyndale’s greatest achievement was the ability to strike a felicitous balance between the needs of scholarship, simplicity of expression, and literary gracefulness, all in a uniform dialect. The effect was the creation of an English style of Bible translation, tinged with Hebraisms, that was to serve as the model for future English versions for nearly 400 years, beginning with the King James Version of 1611.

John Calvin (1509 - 1564), a French protestant, who was exiled from France, publishes his “Institutes of Christian Religion” after a ten year period of writing. He will establish the Reformed and Presbyterian form of Protestantism.

1536 - 1540 - Dissolution of the Monasteries

Henry VIII disbands monasteries, convents, priories and friaries in England, Wales, and Ireland. The property is now his, not the Catholic Church.

1540 - Pope Paul III authorizes the Society of Jesus, (the Jesuits) founded by Ignatius of Loyola (1491 - 1456)

John Calvin is invited to settle in Geneva to put his Reformed doctrine (which stressed God’s power and humanity’s predestined fate) into practice. Geneva became a hotbed for Protestant exiles.

1541 - Calvin becomes the reformer (and de facto ruler) of Geneva. He occupies this function until his death in 1564.

From Wiki:

John Calvin founded Calvinism in Geneva, Switzerland; Calvinism later spread to Germany. Calvin was the leading reformer of the second generation of the Reformation, succeeding Martin Luther at the forefront of theological debate and discussion. His most important work was Institutes of the Christian Religion, published in 1541 at the age of 26. At the time, it had a tremendous impact, and many considered Calvin to be a Protestant equivalent of Thomas Aquinas. In it, Calvin outlined the central premises of the religious doctrine which was to bear his name.

From history.com:

John Calvin’s doctrines quickly spread to Scotland, France, Transylvania and the Low Countries, where Dutch Calvinism became a religious and economic force for the next 400 years.

John Knox leads Reformation in Scotland, establishes Presbyterian church there (1560)

1543 - Nicholas Copernicus (1473 - 1543) published De Revolutionizes Erbium Coelestium /On the Revolution of Heavenly Bodies

1545 - 1563 - Beginning of the Council of Trent. Will meet intermittently until 1563 to define Catholic dogma and doctrine, reiterate papal authority.

From history.com:

The Catholic Church of the Counter-Reformation era grew more spiritual, more literate and more educated. New religious orders, notably the Jesuits, combined rigorous spirituality with a globally minded intellectualism, while mystics such as Teresa of Avila injected new passion into the older orders. Inquisitions, both in Spain and in Rome, were reorganized to fight the threat of Protestant heresy.

1546 - Martin Luther dies at the age of 62 in Germany.

1547 - Ivan the Terrible is crowned as czar of Russia

Henry VIII dies.

From history.com:

After Henry’s death, England tilted toward Calvinist-infused Protestantism during Edward VI’s six-year reign and then endured five years of reactionary Catholicism under Mary I. In 1559 Elizabeth I took the throne and, during her 44-year reign, cast the Church of England as a “middle way” between Calvinism and Catholicism, with vernacular worship and a revised Book of Common Prayer.

1549 - Book of Common Prayer

Publication of the first version of the Book of Commons Prayer in the Church of England

1553 - Michael Servetus (1511-1553), who disputed the Triunity, burned at the stake by John Calvin in Geneva.

“Bloody” Mary Tudor vs Elizabeth Tudor

From wiki:

In England, ”Bloody" Mary Tudor thus took the throne in 1553 and ruled until 1558. She was proud, stubborn, vain, vulnerable to flattery, but most of all, she was highly Catholic. In 1554, she converted England back to Catholicism and burnt hundreds of Protestants at the stake, thus earning her nickname "Bloody" Mary. She married Philip II of Spain. However, as a result of her illness from ovarian cancer, she was forced to recognize her Protestant sister Elizabeth as the heir in 1558.

1555 - Peace of Augsburg ends Shmalkaldic War; victory for the Lutheran cause in Germany - princes can choose between Lutheranism and Catholicism in the Holy Roman Empire.

From wiki:

The Peace of Augsburg in 1555 declared the Prince's religion to be the official religion of a region or country (cuius regio, eius religio). When a new ruler of a different religion took power, large groups had to convert religions. Most people found this to be realistic, and the process did not end until 1648.

In northern Europe (north Germany, Netherlands, and France), the middle class tended to be Protestant. Peasants readily converted religions in order to obtain jobs.

1558 - Elizabeth Tudor I of Tudor becomes Queen of England. She restores Protestantism, establishes state Church of England (Anglicanism). Her rule lasts until her death in 1603.

From National Geographic:

Some English citizens did not believe Queen Elizabeth's efforts to restore England to Protestantism went far enough. These citizens fell into two groups, both labeled Puritans by their opponents. The first group, known as separatists, believed the Church of England was so corrupt that their only choice was to leave England, separate from the church, and start a new church. They called this the English Separatist Church.

Around 1607 or 1609, some of the separatists tried to start the new lives they imagined in Holland, in the Netherlands. Ultimately, the endeavor failed due to poverty and the sense that the children were assimilating too much into Dutch culture, so many of the separatists returned to England.

By 1620, members of the English Separatist Church were ready for a second try at establishing a new life and church. Those who set sail aboard the Mayflower for New England and eventually landed near Plymouth, Massachusetts, would, in time, become known as the Pilgrims.

The other group of English citizens who did not believe Queen Elizabeth's reform efforts went far enough were called nonseparatists; over time, the term "Puritan" would become synonymous with the nonseparatists. They did not seek to leave the Church of England; they wanted only to reform it by eliminating the remnants of Catholicism that remained. In terms of theology, most of them were Calvinists.

Although they did not desire to separate from the Church of England, some Puritans saw emigrating to New England as their best chance at true reform of the church and freedom to worship as they chose. In 1630, a decade after the Pilgrims embarked on a similar journey for similar reasons, the first Puritans traveled to the New World and established the Massachusetts Bay Colony in Boston, Massachusetts.

Height of Renaissance in England.

1560 - Geneva Bible

Publication of the Geneva Bible - the first translation in English that uses verse and chapter divisions.

1561 - Persecution of Huguenots in France stopped by Edict of Orleans.

1562 - Wars of religion in France start up again. These last until Henry IV of Navarre ascends the throne in 1589.

From wiki:

In France, religious civil war took place from 1562 to 1598 between Catholics and Protestants.

The crown usually supported the Catholics but occasionally shifted sides, while the nobility was divided among the two camps.

The three leading families in the nation competed for control of France. These families were the Valois family, which was currently in power and was Catholic, the Bourbon family, which consisted of Huguenots (French Protestants), and the Guise family, who was also Catholic.

Ultimately, the Bourbon family won the war, but its leader Henry of Navarre was unable to be crowned because the strongly Catholic city of Paris shut itself down. Henry put Paris under a year of siege before finally deciding to convert to Catholicism himself in 1593.

1563 - “39 Articles”

The “39 Articles” of the Church of England are published which are a summary of Anglican doctrine and practice. They were preceded by the “42 Articles” written by Thomas Crammer,(1489 - 1556) the Archbishop of Canterbury, in 1552.

1564 - Death of John Calvin (born 1509)

Death of Michelangelo (born 1475)

Birth of Galileo (dies in 1642)

Birth of Shakespeare (dies in 1616)

1566 - Spanish Conflict with the Dutch - Philip II of Spain vs William of Orange of the Netherlands

1568 - Beginning of the revolt of the Protestant northern Low Countries (Netherlands) against Philip II, King of Spain

From wiki:

In 1566, on the Assumption of the Virgin day, a group of Calvinists in the Netherlands stormed Catholic churches, destroying statutes and relics in a town just outside of Antwerp. Dutch Calvinists resented the Catholic religion and their conflicts with the religion, as well as Spanish King Philip II's deep devoutness and close-mindedness toward other religions. The high nobility pleaded with him for more tolerance but some of them were put to death for their insolence.

One of the underlying reasons was that Philip wanted to establish an absolute monarchy in the Netherlands and the religious issue gave him a way to put pressure on the parliament.

William of Orange escaped to Germany from where he tried to incite a rebellion from 1568 onwards but with little success at first.

In 1570 the coastal regions got hit by a weather-related disaster, the All Saints flood that left many regions devastated and the Spanish authorities showed little compassion. William of Orange, then encouraged Sea Beggars, or pirates, to invade the ports of the coast.

In 1572 the small town of Brielle was taken by what were no more than outlaws, greeted enthusiastically by the population. The town declared itself for the prince of Orange and this example was followed by a number of other towns in the relatively inaccessible provinces of Holland and Zeeland.

Philip sent Spanish troops in response. They took Naarden and Haarlem and inflicted horrible suffering on the population. Other towns proved far harder to take and this caused Philip to run out of money.

In what became known as the Spanish Fury, in November of 1576, Philip's unpaid mercenary armies attacked the city of Antwerp killing 7,000 in 11 days. Antwerp was by far the richest city at the time and the influential merchants got the parliament to convene and raise money to pay off the marauding mercenaries.

By doing so the parliament basically took over control from the king in far Madrid and this was the last thing the king wanted. He sent more troops with an ultimatum to the parliament to surrender or else and appointed the Duke of Parma as the new governor of the Netherlands.

In 1579, the southern ten provinces of the Netherlands, which were Catholic, signed the Union of Arras, expressing loyalty to Philip.

During that same year, William of Orange united seven northern states in the Union of Utrecht, which formed the Dutch Republic that openly opposed Philip and Spain.

In 1581, the Spanish army was sent to retake the United Provinces of the Netherlands/ the Dutch Republic, who had just declared their independence.

On July 10, 1584, William of Orange was assassinated, and after his death, the Duke of Parma made progress in his reconquest, capturing significant portions of the Dutch Republic.

However, England, under the leadership of Elizabeth I, assisted the Dutch with troops and horses, and as a result Spain was never able to regain control of the north.

Spain finally recognized Dutch independence in 1648.

1570 - Queen Elizabeth I is excommunicated by Pope.

Turks attack Cyprus and war on Venice.

1571 - Birth of Johannes Kepler (dies in 1630)

Defeat of the Turkish fleet in the naval battle of Lepanto by Spanish and Italian fleets. Peace of Constantinople ends Turkish attacks on Europe.

1572 - New star fully described by Tycho Brahe

St. Bartholomew’s Day massacre, in which thousands of French Protestants (Huguenots) were killed.

1577 - Comet of 1577, fully described by Tycho Brahe.

1582 - Pope Gregory XIII institutes the Gregorian calendar

1583 - William of Orange rules the Netherlands; assassinated on orders by Philip II of Spain in 1584.

1587 - Mary, Queen of Scots, executed for treason by order of Queen Elizabeth I.

1588 - Spanish Armada defeated by the weather and the English fleet

From wiki:

Catholic Philip II of Spain desired to remove Elizabeth I of England from the throne after her rise to power following "Bloody" Mary Tudor's fall to illness. Philip was primarily angry over Elizabeth's actions against English Catholics, but he was also upset as a result of attacks by English privateers upon Spanish vessels, Elizabeth's assisting enemies of Spain such as the Netherlands, in addition to the execution of Mary, Queen of Scots.

Philip did not have any intent to conquer England - he simply desired Elizabeth to cede to Spain's demands, which were - to allow English Catholics to worship in the way that they wanted, to stop assisting Protestant Dutch rebels in the Spanish Netherlands, and to pay reparations for the cost of the invasion as well as English damage to Spanish ships.

1589 - Henry of Navarre (1553 - 1610) becomes the first Bourbon king, Henry IV, of France.

1597 - Johannes Kepler publishes “Cosmographic Mystery".

1598 - Edict of Nantes, under which Protestants in France (Huguenots) are allowed to practice their religion in peace.

The civil war in France was ended by the Edict of Nantes in 1598, which reaffirmed that Catholicism was the official religion in France, but also granted a significant degree of religious and political freedom to Protestants.

Henry IV could be described as a politique, or one who cares more about his nation's peace and prosperity than he does the enforcement of religious toleration.

By the end of the 1500s, the power and dominance of Italy is in decline.