Lyceum & Book Club - Week 12 - Lecture Notes - Constantine - Part 1

No longer were Emperors from one of the great Roman families. For a long time now, the emperors came from the military ranks of leaders who led successful campaigns at the head of large forces. But we are now in transition from the military deciding who would be emperor.

Regarding Diocletian and Maximian:

From wiki:

The relationship between Diocletian and Maximian was quickly couched in religious terms. Around 287 Diocletian assumed the title Iovius, and Maximian assumed the title Herculius. The titles were probably meant to convey certain characteristics of their associated leaders. Diocletian, in Jovian style, would take on the dominating roles of planning and commanding; Maximian, in Herculian mode, would act as Jupiter's heroic subordinate.

For all their religious connotations, the emperors were not "gods" in the tradition of the Imperial cult – although they may have been hailed as such in Imperial panegyrics. Instead, they were seen as the gods' representatives, effecting their will on earth.

The shift from military acclamation to divine sanctification took the power to appoint emperors away from the army. Religious legitimization elevated Diocletian and Maximian above potential rivals in a way military power and dynastic claims could not.

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Constantine’s father, Constantinus, was of low birth, born in the region of the Balkans, in an area that was known more for its military encampments than its cities. Constantinus rose through the Roman army to the top ranks.

He was commander under the first senior emperor in the west, Maximian.

Constantine was born in 272 in what is modern day Serbia, a part of the Roman Empire. He was the first born and only child of Constantinus and his concubine, Helen, who was of low birth and Greek.

In what is thought of as a power move, sometime before 289, Constantinus put aside Constantine’s mother and married the daughter of Maximian, Theodora.

Constantine and Helena were sent to live at Diocletian/ later Galerius’ court. It ensured Helena and Constantine would be taken care of in proper style, but it also was a surety for Diocletian (and later Galerius) that Constantinus never rebelled. In effect, they were hostages, well treated, but not really free.

Constantinus was made Caesar in the west in 293 under Maximian.

When the Great Persecution was enacted, out of the three rulers in power, Constantinus did the least to enforce the edict beyond destroying a few Christian churches. (Galerius saw Constantinus’ lack of zeal as ammunition against Constantinus and a way to gain leverage against Constantinus with Diocletian.)

Not only had Constantine’s mother, Helen, been a devoted Christian whom Constantine was close to, and she remained a vital integral part and influence his whole life, but it appears his dad was not against the faith movement.

It would be only natural to assume that Constantine had exposure to the faith via his mother, but he grew up watching how his dad negotiated following the dictates of pagan society while not necessarily being against the minority rising faith. Certainly his dad (and Constantine, even at the beginning) did not view Christianity as something outside the boundaries to be opposed.

Like many military men, Constantine started out giving his devotions to Mars, but increasingly he followed Apollo, referenced as Sol Invictus until 312.

Constantinus only served one year (305 - 306) as Augustus, senior emperor in the west. Under Galerius’ influence, Diocletian forced Maximian to retire and Constantinus took Maximian’s position as Augustus in the west, while Diocletian abdicated in 305 and Galerius, who had been his junior as Caesar, took the position as Augustus (senior emperor to Constantinus) in the east.

It had been assumed that Constantine would follow in his father’s footsteps and be made Caesar as also, Maxentius would follow in his father, Maximian’s, footsteps as Caesar. (Though ten years apart in age, they both grew up in the same court) And when Galerius died and Constantinus died, the two would rise up as co-emperors.

But Galerius had ambitions to consolidate rulership under his name alone once Diocletian died and did not want any strong leader in place as a challenger, so he worked to kick both sons out of the succession and put in his own choices that he felt he could easily control or overthrow.

He convinced Diocletian to place a relatively unknown (even though Severus had a long military career and was a long time military companion of Galerius), Severus, as the Caesar in the west when Constantinus was elevated to Augustus. It may have been settled as early as 304 to not place either son in as Caesar, but we know that Severus was selected as the choice that early. When Galerius was elevated that same year, 305, to the position of Augustus in the east, he placed his nephew, Maximinus Daza, as his Caesar in the east instead of Maximian’s son, Maxentius.

So Galerius’ plans came to fruition in 305. In 305, Constantinus became Emperor in the west, with Severus as his Caesar; Galerius became senior emperor in the East with his nephew as his Caesar.

Needless to say, Constantine was gravely disappointed as he fully expected to be made Caesar.

Constantine had been kept at Galerius’ court as a pledge of good conduct by Constantinus, but at this point, Constantinus (who was suffering from leukemia), asked if his son could accompany him on his campaign to Britain and was given permission, so Constantine was with his father in Britain at the time Constantinus finally and suddenly succumbed to his disease.

The wrench in the works was that when Constantinus died a year (306) into his emperorship while on a military campaign in the British Isles, and as he lay dying, he commended his son, Constantine, to his troops, as his successor to the position of Emperor, not Severus. And his troops hailed Constantine as Augustus. We do not know if Constantinus decided to suddenly buck the system or if Constantine pushed his father to make a declaration for him, but we do know Constantinus recommended his son as Augustus after him.

This posed a problem for Galerius, who had not planned on facing the challenge of a threatened military mutiny to his rule. So he made Constantine the Caesar in the west in 306 under Emperor Severus. That left out Maxentius and he wasn’t going to take it lying down and that ensured multiple campaigns, both overt military and behind the scenes, amongst the various contenders.

Constantine was elevated to Emperor in the West that same year. (Severus did not last long).

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Even though Diocletian had stepped down in 305, in all probability to declining health, he still very must contributed his weight and prestige behind issues, such as when both he and Galerius forced Maximian to renounce his imperial claim at the Council of Carnuntum in 308.

It is during Galerius’s last bout of illness that Galerius issued his Edict of Toleration in 311. Both Constantine and Licinius’ signature were on this document and it was said they probably were the ones who pushed for him to issue the edict. (If one of the instigators was more of the mover on the issue than the other, we do not hear, but I would not doubt that Constantine already was working to reform existing policies regarding Christians).

Both Diocletian and Galerius died in the year 311.

(I bet Galerius didn’t expect that to happen. Here he kept waiting for Diocletian to die before he could put his big power moves into place and then Diocletian dies and he realizes he is going to die, too, with no more time to make any big moves.)

None of the original authority figures of the Tetrarchy were alive after this point. It really kind of opens up the stage to new dynamics.

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When Maxentius declared himself Emperor of Rome, it was with the support of the Praetorian Guard, the Senate and the people of Rome. He had every reason to believe he could overcome any forces sent from the east with that kind of backing.

It had been a long time since any emperor, east or west, made Rome their headquarters and residence. And where the emperors lived and worked was where state money went to build up infrastructure and start to cities. Rome had not been significant in anybody’s plans for a long time. It was starting to look a little shop worn.

And here comes Maxentius who wanted to put them on the back again. And who spent money improving the infrastructure and building in Rome. Maxentius controlled not only Rome and parts of mainland Italy, he controlled Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia and parts of North Africa.

But very quickly the people of Rome came to regret their earlier favor of him. His building spree devolved into over taxation and depressed trade. Maxentius’ attitude toward the people bordered on contempt. So great was the dissatisfaction with Maxentius, that the result was a series of riots that Maxentius met by killing the participants - to a total of several thousand Romans being slaughtered.

To prevent Maxentius from forming an alliance with Licinius in the west, in the winter of 311/312,Constantine forged his own alliance with Licinius, offering his step- sister to Licinius in marriage to seal the alliance. And in the west, Maximinus Daza took umbrage at this move that he felt moved in on his own territory and sent ambassadors to Rome and offered Maxentius political recognition in exchange for military support. Maxentius accepted.

By 312, Maxentius was a man barely tolerated with no supporters among the civilians in Rome and the Italian territories he held.

At the point in 312 when Constantine judged the people of Rome and the senate would no longer back Maxentius, he gathered an army of forty thousand, crossed the Alps and invaded Italy. He gave his campaign a “holy” aura saying he had a dream / vision the day before the big battle that he would succeed because God favored him and had the shields of his men carry the symbol of the new faith (there is debate on exactly what symbol this was - from a very general symbol that could be interpreted in a broad way to a symbol that was distinctly Christian and could not be interpreted any other way.)

When the citizens and leaders of Rome failed to pledge their support, Maxentius was left with no option but to ride out with his men (and he had a huge army) and meet Constantine on the battlefield in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge.

In the rush of Maxentius and his men to retreat back into Rome, Maxentius fell into the Tiber River and drowned in his armor. His corpse was found the next day.

From wiki:

Constantine deployed his own forces along the whole length of Maxentius' line. He ordered his cavalry to charge, and they broke Maxentius' cavalry. He then sent his infantry against Maxentius' infantry, pushing many into the Tiber where they were slaughtered and drowned. The battle was brief and Maxentius' troops were broken before the first charge. His horse guards and praetorians initially held their position, but they broke under the force of a Constantinian cavalry charge; they also broke ranks and fled to the river. Maxentius rode with them and attempted to cross the bridge of boats, but he was pushed into the Tiber and drowned by the mass of his fleeing soldiers.

It is at this event that Constantine converts to Christianity and writes the Christian community that his victory was solely due to the god of the Christians; the “High God alone”.

But while he converted, he maintained the trend of the times of not being baptized into the faith until later in life.

In the fourth century, a widespread practice arose of enrolling as a catechumen and deferring baptism for years, often until shortly before death. Constantine was the most prominent of these catechumens.- wiki

He remained a catechumen until just before his death at the age of 65 in 337. Some say this was to ensure he could accomplish what he felt he needed to, but would not have to account for those actions as sins against him if he was baptized into the faith just before death.

But it also might be for practical reasons, to always keep his convictions just vague enough to negotiate between the different competing sectors.

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From wiki:

Constantine ruled the Roman Empire as sole emperor for much of his reign. Some scholars allege that his main objective was to gain unanimous approval and submission to his authority from all classes, and therefore chose Christianity to conduct his political propaganda, believing that it was the most appropriate religion that could fit with the Imperial cult .

Regardless, under the Constantinian dynasty Christianity expanded throughout the Empire, launching the era of State church of the Roman Empire.

Whether Constantine sincerely converted to Christianity or remained loyal to Paganism is a matter of debate among historians. His formal conversion in 312 is almost universally acknowledged among historians. The real reasons behind (his conversion) remain unknown and are debated also.

According to Hans Pohlsander, Professor Emeritus of History at the University at Albany, SUNY, Constantine's conversion was just another instrument of realpolitik in his hands meant to serve his political interest in keeping the Empire united under his control:

“The prevailing spirit of Constantine's government was one of conservatorism. His conversion to and support of Christianity produced fewer innovations than one might have expected; indeed they served an entirely conservative end, the preservation and continuation of the Empire.”

— Hans Pohlsander, The Emperor Constantine

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When Constantine makes his triumphant march through Rome, the people of Rome were ecstatic. But he did not go to Capitoline Hill and make the traditional sacrifices to Jupiter, he went straight to the imperial palace.

Constantine began his reign with a building program in Rome both to maintain the populace loyalty to himself and to ensure that any achievements Maxentius had achieved would be overshadowed by his own. He had the Circus Maximus redeveloped so that its seating capacity would now be 25 times larger than the racing complex Maxentius built. Constantine had all of the structures built by Maxentius rededicated to himself, including the Temple of Romulus and the Basilica of Maxentius, where Constantine had a stone statue of himself holding the Christian labarum in his hand with the inscription: “By this sign Constantine had freed Rome from the yoke of the tyrant”.

Constantine chose to not engage in any kind of purge of the supporters of Maxentius in the Senate,instead promising them that he would restore their ancient privileges and give the Senate a secure role in his government. He issued decrees returning any property that was confiscated under Maxentius, recalled political exiles and released those opponents of Maxentius that had been imprisoned. The Senate acclaimed Constantine the greatest Augustus.

But Constantine did disbanded the Praetorian Guard and Imperial Guard, both of which had supported Maxentius.

The tombstones of the Imperial Horse Guard were ground up and use in building a basilica. Their former base was destroyed two weeks after Constantine marched into the city and later in 324 redeveloped into the Lateran Basilica.

Those of Maxentius’ men who had not been killed on the battlefield in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge were sent to the frontier on the Rhine to serve, a heavy duty of service. Thus, Constantine neutralized the renegade faction in the military that Maxentius had gathered.

And he immediately issued his policy which was later called the Edict of Milan, forbade pagan sacrifices and within two months, he left the city to not return until 326.

To show their gratitude and loyalty for Constantine, the Senate commissioned (with Constantine’s approval) a triumphal arch to be completed by the decennia in 315, which was also Constantine’s 10th year of reign. That didn’t leave much time to get the job done and much was incorporated from other existing structures. The Arch does not depict Constantine sacrificing to Jupiter, but it does show him sacrificing to Apollo and Hercules.

Constantine was now the sole emperor in the west.

From rpi.edu:

Rome's famous Arch of Constantine was completed in time for the beginning of Constantine's decennalia (the tenth anniversary of his acclamation). There were all manner of festivities, but Constantine pointedly omitted the traditional sacrifices to the pagan gods.

And then in 313 came the extension of Constantine’s religious polices to the east.

From wiki:

In 313 Constantine and Licinius announced "that it was proper that the Christians and all others should have liberty to follow that mode of religion which to each of them appeared best,” thereby granting tolerance to all religions, including Christianity.

The Edict of Milan went a step further than the earlier Edict of Serdica by Galerius in 311, returning confiscated Church property. This edict made the empire officially neutral with regard to religious worship; it neither made the traditional religions illegal nor made Christianity the state religion.

The Edict of Milan did, however, raise the stock of Christianity within the empire and it reaffirmed the importance of religious worship to the welfare of the state.

Most influential people in the empire, especially high military officials, had not been converted to Christianity and still participated in the traditional religions of Rome; Constantine's rule exhibited at least a willingness to appease these factions. The Roman coins minted up to eight years after the battle still bore the images of Roman gods. The monuments he first commissioned, such as the Arch of Constantine, (finished in 315) contained no reference to Christianity.